蓝色星球报告：物种、自然环境和人类福祉（英文版）.pdf

Living Blue Planet Report Species, habitats and human well-being N IT 2015 REPORTWWF WWF is one of the worlds largest and most experienced independent conservation organizations, with over 5 million supporters and a global network active in more than 100 countries. WWFs mission is to stop the degradation of the planets natural environment and to build a future in which humans live in harmony with nature, by conserving the worlds biological diversity, ensuring that the use of renewable natural resources is sustainable, and promoting the reduction of pollution and wasteful consumption. Zoological Society of London Founded in 1826, the Zoological Society of London (ZSL) is an international scientific, conservation and educational organization. Its mission is to achieve and promote the worldwide conservation of animals and their habitats. ZSL runs ZSL London Zoo and ZSL Whipsnade Zoo; carries out scientific research in the Institute of Zoology; and is actively involved in field conservation worldwide. The ZSL manages the Living Planet Index in a collaborative partnership with WWF. WWF International Avenue du Mont-Blanc 1196 Gland, Switzerland panda Institute of Zoology Zoological Society of London Regents Park,London NW1 4RY, UK zsl/indicators livingplanetindex Design by: millerdesign.co.uk Cover photograph: / David Fleetham / WWF Living Planet Report WWFs Living Planet Report, released every two years, is a leading science-based analysis on the health of our planet and the impact of human activity upon it. The Living Planet Report 2014 detailed alarming declines in biodiversity, showing species populations falling by half between 1970 and 2010. It also showed that humanity, particularly in developed nations, continues to make unsustainable demands on nature. This special edition takes a deeper look into these findings, and their implications, for the marine realm. Data on marine ecosystems and human impacts upon them is limited, reflecting the lack of attention the ocean has received to date. Nevertheless, the trends shown here present a compelling case for action to restore our ocean to health. ISBN 978-2-940529-24-7 Living Planet Report and Living Planet Index are registered trademarks of WWF International. This report has been printed on FSC certified paper. Printed at NCP SA and Cavin SA, SwitzerlandForeword page 1 INtroduct IoN 3 cHAPt Er oNE: t HE St At E oF our BLuE PLANEt 4 The marine Living Planet Index 6 Fish 7 Other species trends 8 Habitats 12 cHAPt Er t Wo: our ocEAN uNdEr Pr ESSur E 22 Our ocean under pressure 24 Overfishing 26 Aquaculture 29 Tourism 31 Climate change 33 Extractives 35 Land-based pollution 37 cHAPt Er 3: WHY WE SHou Ld cAr E 41 Why we should care 42 Socio-economic implications of ocean decline 44 Invisibility of natures value: a major cause of ocean decline 44 An ocean of opportunity 47 cHAPt Er 4: t ur NINg t HE t IdE 49 Blue planet solutions 50 The One Planet Perspective in action 54 t HE NEXt WAVE 60 rEFE r ENcES 62 coNt ENt SLiving Blue Planet Report page 2 Foreword page 3 Nearly 3 billio N people rely o N fish as a major source of protei N. overall, fisheries a Nd aqua culture assure the livelihoods of 1012 per ce Nt of the worlds populatio N. 60per ceNt of the world s populatio N live s withi N 100Km of the coast . mari Ne vertebrate populatio Ns decli Ned 49 per ceNt betwee N 1970 a Nd 2012. populatio Ns of fish species utili Zed by huma Ns have falle N by half , with some of the most importa Nt species eXperie NciNG eve N Greater decli Nes. arou Nd oNe iN four species of shar Ks, ray s a Nd sKates is Now threate Ned with eXti Nctio N, due primarily to overfishi NG. tropical reefs have lost more tha N half their reef -buildi NG corals over the last 30 years . worldwide , Nearly 20 per ceNt of ma NGrove cover was lost betwee N 1980 a Nd 2005. 29 per ceNt of mari Ne fisheries are overfished . if curre Nt rates of temperature rise co Nti Nue, the ocea N will become too warm for coral reefs by 2050. seabed miNiNG lice Nces cover 1.2 millio N square Kilometres of ocea N floor . more tha N 5 trillio N plastic pieces wei Ghi NG over 250,000 to NNes are iN the sea . oXy GeN-depleted dead ZoNes are Growi NG as a result of Nutrie Nt ru N-off . t he ocea N GeNerates eco Nomic be Nefits worth a t least us $2.5 trillio N per year . just 3.4 per ceNt of the ocea N is protected , a Nd oNly part of this is effectively ma NaGed. iNcreasi NG mari Ne protected area covera Ge to 30 per ceNt could GeNerate up to us $920 billio Nbetwee N 2015 a Nd 2050. our l ivi NG b lue pla Net Our ocean that seemingly infinitely bountiful, ever awe-inspiring blue that defines our planet from space is in crisis. When I wrote the foreword to the 2014 edition of WWFs Living Planet Report, I said it was not for the faint-hearted. This edition a deep dive into the health of marine species and the habitats on which they depend is equally if not more sobering. The marine Living Planet Index (LPI) presented here is roughly in line with the global LPI, which shows a 52 per cent decline in vertebrate populations since 1970. That alone should set off alarm bells. But its whats hidden in the overall marine LPI that foretells an impending social and economic crisis. When we look at the fish species most directly tied to human well-being the fish that constitute up to 60 per cent of protein intake in coastal countries, supporting millions of small-scale fishers as well as a global multibillion-dollar industry we see populations in a nosedive. The habitats they depend on, such as coral reefs, mangroves and seagrasses, are equally threatened. The picture is now clearer than ever: humanity is collectively mismanaging the ocean to the brink of collapse. Considering the oceans vital role in our economies and its essential contribution to food security particularly for poor, coastal communities thats simply unacceptable. Could the economic implications of the collapse of the oceans ecosystems trigger the next global recession or undermine the progress we have made on eradicating poverty? Solutions exist: smart fishing practices that eliminate bycatch, waste and overfishing; getting rid of harmful subsidies and unregulated fishing; protecting key habitats and a large enough portion of the ocean to enable the regeneration of its living resources while conserving iconic species and inspirational places; cutting CO 2 emissions that threaten a potentially catastrophic acidification of the ocean. And the ocean has another great advantage: it is a dynamic, interconnected global ecosystem that can bounce back relatively quickly if the pressures are dealt with effectively. WWF reports on the state of the planets health every two years. But we decided we needed to amplify the warning siren for the ocean this year, because the situation is urgent and the moment to act is at hand. The global community has prioritized a healthy ocean in the post-2015 sustainable development agenda. These commitments must be backed by tangible investment in restoring and sustainably managing marine resources. The pace of change in the ocean tells us theres no time to waste. These changes are happening in our lifetime. We can and we must correct course now. t he trends shown in this report present a compelling case for action to restore our ocean to health. WWF / Matthew Lee Marco Lambertini Director General, WWF InternationalJrgen Freund / WWF-Pacific cHAPt Er oNE: t HE St At E oF our BLuE PLANEt On Mali Island in Fiji, Alumita Camari expertly handles a freshly caught live (and aggressive) mud-crab from the mangroves. Mita, as shes commonly known, is considered the best mud-crab harvester in her village. A single mother, she relies on fishing to provide for herself and her daughter. Life in Fiji has always been shaped by the ocean. The Pacific island nation is home to the Great Sea Reef, known locally as Cakaulevu. Over 200km in length, its the worlds third longest barrier reef system after Australias Great Barrier Reef and the Mesoamerican Reef off the Caribbean coast of Central America. The reef and associated ecosystems like mangroves are fundamental to the countrys economy and peoples way of life. They provide food, attract hundreds of thousands of tourists each year, and protect coastal areas from storms. But coral reefs and other marine ecosystems are declining all over the world. Populations of marine species are falling, while habitats are being destroyed and degraded. The incredible marine biodiversity of our blue planet, and the diverse coastal cultures that have evolved upon it, face an uncertain future.Living Blue Planet Report page 6 Chapter 1: The state of our blue planet page 7 t he marine Living Planet Index 0 1 2 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 Index value (1970=1) Year 0 1 2 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2012 Index value (1970=1) Year Figure 1: The global marine LPI shows a decline of 49 per cent between 1970 and 2012. This is based on trends in 5,829 populations of 1,234 species (WWF-ZSL, 2015). Key Marine Living Planet Index Confidence limits Figure 2: The utilized fish index declined 50 per cent between 1970 and 2010 (WWF-ZSL, 2015). Key Utilized fish index Confidence limits Fish For fish species of importance for regional economies, livelihoods and food, the decline may be even more dramatic. This can be seen in the case of Scrombidae, the family of mackerels, tunas and bonitos. An index for Scrombidae, based on data from 58 populations of 17 species, shows a decline of 74 per cent between 1970 and 2010 (Figure 3). While the most rapid decline is between 1976 and 1990, there is currently no sign of overall recovery at a global level. Figure 3: The index for Scrombidae (tuna, mackerel, bonito) declined 74 per cent between 1970 and 2010 (WWF-ZSL, 2015). Key Scrombidae index Confidence limits 0 1 2 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 Index value (1970=1) Year The Living Planet Report 2014 highlighted the alarming state of the natural world upon which our societies and economies depend. The Living Planet Index (LPI), which measures trends in 10,380 populations of 3,038 vertebrate species, declined 52 per cent between 1970 and 2010. In other words, population sizes of mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians and fish fell by half on average in just 40 years. Humanity continues to make unsustainable demands on nature, threatening our long-term well-being and prosperity. As ecosystems decline, meeting the basic needs of a growing human population will become an even greater challenge. The LPI for marine populations, compiled for this report, shows a decline of 49 per cent between 1970 and 2012 (Figure 1). This is based on trends in 5,829 populations of 1,234 mammal, bird, reptile and fish species. With many more species and locations included, the marine LPI in this report is almost twice as large as it was in the Living Planet Report 2014, giving an even clearer picture of ocean health and the decline is even greater than previously described. The period from 1970 through to the mid- 1980s experienced the steepest decline, after which there was some stability but more recently, population numbers have been falling again. The global index masks considerable variation in different regions: numbers have been increasing (from previously depleted levels) in northern latitudes, but falling in tropical and subtropical regions. This chapter dives deeper into this data. Because the marine environment has not been comprehensively monitored, there are gaps in the data for some regions. The Zoological Society of London (ZSL) has created indices for a number of ecosystems and species types where we have sufficient robust data available from published reports, journal articles and fisheries researchers. Of the marine fish in the LPI (930 species), 1,463 populations (492 species) are recorded as utilized, whether for local subsistence or commercial use. The index for all utilized fish species indicates a 50 per cent reduction in population numbers globally between 1970 and 2010 (Figure 2). Of the utilized fish populations, data sources for 459 contain information on threats. Exploitation is identified as the main threat in the vast majority of cases; other threats listed include habitat degradation/loss and climate change impactsLiving Blue Planet Report page 8 Chapter 1: The state of our blue planet page 9 other species Figure 4: Threatened marine species, as chronicled by the IUCN Red List. Threat categories include “extinct” (orange), “endangered” (red; IUCN categories “critically endangered” + “endangered”), “data deficient” (light grey), and “unreviewed” (brown). Groups that contact land during some portion of their life history (green) are distinguished from species that do not (light blue). The total number of species estimated in each group is listed below the graph (McCauley et al.,2015). 0 40 20 100 80 60 ST 7 PO 36 SS 478 SSL 82 CS 88 DBRF 530 CF 1061 MRF 15,050 MI 151,150 Percent of species Terrestrial contact Exclusively aquatic The decline observed in fish populations holds true for other marine species. As marine ecosystems are closely interconnected, these declines can affect marine food webs and alter ocean ecosystem functioning (McCauley et al., 2015). While the IUCN Red List shows a growing number of threatened marine species, only a small fraction of known marine species have been evaluated and in many case there is insufficient data to conduct an adequate assessment (Figure 4). Further research and monitoring is urgently needed into fish species and marine invertebrates, in particular, to determine threat levels. We have selected three species groups as indicators of the current level of stress on biodiversity and marine ecosystem health: sea cucumbers (one of the few invertebrate species groups to have been monitored in some detail); sharks and rays, which include many threatened species but also many data gaps; and marine turtles, where species critically endangered status has helped spur conservation action. Figure 5: Global sea cucumber harvest, based on FAO data (Purcell et al., 2013). Key Global sea cucumber harvest 0 20 16 12 8 4 1950 1980 1970 1960 1990 2000 2008 Tonnes (dried) x 1,000 Year Improved governance of sea cucumber fisheries is vital. Management measures need to take account of sea cucumber stocks, the ecosystems they are part of, and the socio-economic drivers of exploitation (Purcell et al., 2013). Sea cucumbers Sea cucumbers are distributed globally, and harvested and traded in more than 70 countries (Purcell et al., 2012). They play a vital role in the ecosystem, regulating water quality, turning over sediment, recycling nutrients, and as prey for commercial species such as crustaceans. They are also prized as a luxury food item, particularly in Asia. Globally, sea cucumber fisheries have expanded massively in the last 25 years (Figure 5). Many populations have been overfished, causing knock-on effects in