EAST ASIA AND PACIFIC CITIESExpanding Opportunities for the Urban PoorISBN 978-1-4648-1093-0SKU 211093 rbanization in the East Asia and Pacif_i c region has created enormous opportunities for many. Yet the rapid growth of cities has also created challengesamong them are the lack of affordable housing, def_i cits in basic service provision, and the widening inequality for urban dwellers.With an estimated 250 million people in East Asia and the Pacif_i c living in slums, the region has the largest slum population in the world. Approximately 75 million people live below the US$3.10 per day poverty line, with urban poverty existing in both lower-middle-income and upper-middle-income countries.In East Asia and Pacif_i c Cities: Expanding Opportunities for the Urban Poor, the multidimensional aspects of urban poverty and inequality are analyzed using a framework that includes economic, spatial, and social dimensions. This framework focuses on key factors related to jobs and livelihoods, living conditions, and the equitable rights and protection of subgroups. The book also provides numerous examples of how these issues have been tackled in the region through specif_i c policies and programs. This is important reading for policy makers, practitioners, and researchers interested in understanding the challenges of the urban poor in East Asia and the Pacif_i c, as well as successful approaches for addressing it.Please see worldbank/eap/inclusivecities for the full report and case studies. EAST ASIA AND PACIFIC CITIESJudy L. Baker and Gauri U. Gadgil, EditorsUEast Asia and Pacific CitiesUrban Development SeriesThe Urban Development Series discusses the challenge of urbanization and what it will mean for developing countries in the decades ahead. The series aims to delve substantively into a range of core issues related to urban devel-opment that policy makers and practitioners must address.Cities and Climate Change: Responding to an Urgent AgendaClimate Change, Disaster Risk, and the Urban Poor: Cities Building Resilience for a Changing WorldEast Asia and Pacific Cities: Expanding Opportunities for the Urban PoorEast Asias Changing Urban Landscape: Measuring a Decade of Spatial GrowthThe Economics of Uniqueness: Investing in Historic City Cores and Cultural Heritage Assets for Sustainable DevelopmentFinancing Transit-Oriented Development with Land Values: Adapting Land Value Capture in Developing CountriesTransforming Cities with Transit: Transit and Land-Use Integration for Sustainable Urban DevelopmentUrban Risk Assessments: An Approach for Understanding Disaster and Climate Risk in CitiesAll books in the Urban Development Series are available for free atopenknowledge.worldbank/handle/10986/2174East Asia and Pacific Cities Expanding Opportunities for the Urban PoorJudy L. Baker and Gauri U. Gadgil, Editors© 2017 International Bank for Reconstruction and Development / The World Bank1818 H Street NW, Washington, DC 20433Telephone: 202-473-1000; Internet: worldbankSome rights reserved1 2 3 4 20 19 18 17This work is a product of the staff of The World Bank with external contributions. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this work do not necessarily reflect the views of The World Bank, its Board of Executive Directors, or the governments they represent. The World Bank does not guarantee the accuracy of the data included in this work. 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The World Bank therefore does not warrant that the use of any third-party-owned individual component or part contained in the work will not infringe on the rights of those third parties. The risk of claims resulting from such infringement rests solely with you. If you wish to re-use a component of the work, it is your responsibility to determine whether permission is needed for that re-use and to obtain permission from the copyright owner. Examples of components can include, but are not limited to, tables, figures, or images.All queries on rights and licenses should be addressed to World Bank Publications, The World Bank Group, 1818 H Street NW, Washington, DC 20433, USA; fax: 202-522-2625; e-mail: pubrightsworldbank.ISBN (paper): 978-1-4648-1093-0ISBN (electronic): 978-1-4648-1103-6DOI: 10.1596/978-1-4648-1093-0Cover photo: © Aileen Dimatatac / World BankCover design: Debra Malovany (World Bank)Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data has been requestedvContentsAcknowledgments xiAbbreviations xiiiExecutive Summary xv1. East Asia and the Pacifics Urbanizing Context 1Introduction 1Urbanization in the EAP region 5Poverty Reduction and Urbanization in the EAP Region 9Income Inequality in EAP Cities 15Urban Poverty in Smaller Cities and Towns 17Characteristics of Urban Poverty in EAP: Large Slum Populations 20Notes 23References 252. Economic Inclusion and the Urban Poor 27Introduction 27Employment Trends in East Asia and the Pacific 28Key Challenges to Employment for the Urban Poor 31Risk and Resilience among the Urban Poor 37Economic Inclusion: Increasing Jobs and Resilience 42Notes 48References 483. Spatial Inclusion and the Urban Poor 53Introduction 53Housing, Informality, and the Urban Poor 54Key Challenges to Providing Secure Housing 59vi East Asia and Pacific CitiesBasic Infrastructure and Services in Low-Income Urban Areas 61Key Challenges in Infrastructure and Service Provision 68Mobility and Access to the City 70Key Mobility Challenges for the Urban Poor 75Spatial Inclusion: Strategies for Housing, Infrastructure and Service Provision, and Connectivity 79Notes 84References 854. Social Inclusion and the Urban Poor 91Introduction 91Key Challenges in Social Inclusion for the Urban Poor 91Subgroups among the Urban Poor: Women 101Subgroups among the Urban Poor: The Elderly 105Subgroups among the Urban Poor: Migrants 108Social Inclusion: Programs Targeting Urban Women, the Elderly, and Migrant Populations 111Notes 117References 1185. Guiding Principles for Promoting Poverty Reduction and Inclusion in East Asia and the Pacifics Cities 123Introduction 123Promoting Economic Inclusion for the Urban Poor 128Promoting Spatial Inclusion for the Urban Poor 130Promoting Social Inclusion for the Urban Poor 135Investing Further in Knowledge on the Urban Poor and Slums 137Note 148References 148Appendix: Country Profiles 149Cambodia 149China 153Indonesia 158Mongolia 163Myanmar 166The Philippines 171Vietnam 176Notes 181References 181Boxes1 East Asia and Pacific Cities: Expanding Opportunities for the Urban Poor: Objectives and Contents xvi1.1 Measuring Urban Extent through New Data Sources 71.2 Challenges in Measuring Urban Poverty 11Contents vii1.3 Multidimensional Poverty in Metro Manila 111.4 Informal Settlements and Slum Communities from across the EAP Region 222.1 Informality in the Global Economic Crisis 302.2 Educational Barriers to Employment in Vietnam 322.3 Youth Inactivity and Informal Employment in Indonesia 342.4 Importance of Social Networks in the Job Search in Myanmar 352.5 Employment Constraints for Young Women in Ulaanbaatar 372.6 Disruption of Home-based Work Due to Flooding in Thailand 383.1 All Slums Are Not EqualSlum Development in Metro Manila, the Philippines 553.2 Housing for Migrant Workers 573.3 Informality Contributes to Public Health Hazards in Cambodia 673.4 Migrant Workers Lack Permits, Access to Services in Vietnam 693.5 Costs Accrued in Extending Services to the Urban Periphery in Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia, 200510 693.6 Gridlock and Bike Bans in Yangon, Myanmar 723.7 Commuting and Employment in Guangzhou, China 753.8 Accessibility of Informal Urban Settlements in the Philippines 763.9 Household Expenditures on Transportation in Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia 774.1 Land-titling and Access based on Identity in Mongolia 934.2 Vietnams Legislation Ignores Customary Land Rights 944.3 Hukou System in China: Evolving Reforms over Time 944.4 Inclusive Cities: At-Risk Youth in Urban Areas of Malaysia 964.5 Inside Koreas Impoverished Elderly Population 1074.6 Policies That Have Excluded Migrants in the EAP 1084.7 Approaches to Inclusion of the Elderly in China 1134.8 Pro-poor Slum Upgrading in Thailands Community Organizations Development Institute 1145.1 Urbanization and Spatial Transformation Phases in Korea 1315.2 Singapores Inclusive Urbanization Experience 1335.3 Analyzing Urban Poverty and Informal Settlements in Metro Manila and Ulaanbaatar 138A.1 Urban Risk Profile, Balikpapan, Indonesia 160A.2 Perspectives on Poverty and Finding Jobs in Indonesia 161A.3 Increased Vulnerability among Youth in Myanmar 169A.4 Living among the Graves 172A.5 Women Improving Their Situation in Urban Slums in Vietnam 178A.6 Doi Moi Economic Policy in Vietnam 179Figures1.1 Multidimensional Framework for Inclusive Cities and the Urban Poor 21.2 Total Urban Population by Region between 1960 and 2015 5viii East Asia and Pacific Cities1.3 Urban Population by Country, 2000 and 2010 71.4 Share of the Worlds Natural Disasters, by Region 9B1.3.1 Relative Contribution to Multidimensional Poverty, Metro Manila, 2016 121.5 Regional Urban Poverty Rates 141.6 Urban Poverty Rates over Time, in the EAP Region 141.7 Proportion of Urban Land by Income Group in EAP, 2000 and 2010 161.8 Intra-urban Inequalities (Gini Coefficients) 171.9 Poverty and Place 191.10 Proportion of Urban Population Living in Slums, by Region, 2014 212.1 Rates of Informal Employment in Select East Asia and Pacific Countries 28B3.1.1 Informal Settlements by Type, Metro Manila, the Philippines 563.1 Regional Access to Urban Water and Sanitation, 2015 623.2 Access to Sanitation Services in Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia, 2014 633.3 Average Commute Time versus Population 713.4 Four-wheeler Motorization Rate Relative to Per-Capita Income 734.1 Gini Coefficient of Land Equality 924.2 Country Contexts from Less Participatory to Most Participatory 984.3 Old-age Dependency Ratios, 2013 and 2030 106A.1 Urban Access to Sanitation by Income Level, Indonesia 159A.2 Rates of Urban-Rural Inequality in Myanmar 167A.3 Increasing Slum Populations in Urban Areas in the Philippines 173A.4 Poverty Levels in Vietnam by Class of City 177Tables1.1 Diversity in EAP Countries 4B1.3.1 Comparing Income versus Multidimensional Poor Individuals Based on Income Status 121.2 Urban Poverty and Inequality across the EAP Region 131.3 Urban Slum Population by Region, 2014 211.4 Urban Population Living in Slum Areas in Select EAP Countries, 2014 222.1 Average Wage Earnings by Employment Status in Urban Areas in Indonesia, 2011 302.2 Female Labor Force Participation Rate by Region, 2014 312.3 Professional Training of Urban Labor Force, by Income Quintile and Percent, Vietnam, 2009 332.4 Impacts of Flooding on Residents in Tham LuongBen Cat Subcatchment, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam 382.5 Regional Examples of Social Safety Net Programs for Disaster Relief 47